The Development of Music in the Abbasid Era: Foundations of Islamic Musical Traditions
The Development of Music in the Abbasid Era:
Foundations of Islamic Musical Traditions
Faculty of Fine
Arts, Kabul University
ORCID: 0009-0004-0024-1223
Abstract
Music during the Abbasid period, particularly in
Baghdad, constituted an important aspect of the cultural and artistic life of
the Islamic world. The relocation of the caliphate’s political center to
Baghdad and the patronage of certain caliphs, particularly al-Mahdi, Harun
al-Rashid, and al-Ma'mun, created favorable conditions for the development of
courtly, professional, and theoretical music. During this period, music
transcended the boundaries of entertainment and gradually developed into a
specialized field with relatively defined educational, professional, and social
structures. The contributions of prominent musicians such as Ibrahim al-Mawsili
and Ishaq al-Mawsili played a significant role in developing performance
practices, artistic education, and the transmission of musical traditions.
Cultural interaction among the Islamic world and the musical traditions of
Persia, Greece, and other regions also contributed to the expansion of
theoretical knowledge and the diversification of performance practices. Court
music, literary gatherings, official ceremonies, and military activities
represented important contexts for musical performance during this period. The
participation of female singers and instrumentalists, together with the
emergence of educational and professional systems, further influenced the
social status of music. This study examines the historical, social, and
artistic dimensions of Abbasid music and analyzes the role of this period in
the formation and continuity of Islamic musical traditions.
Keywords: Abbasid music, Baghdad, Harun al-Rashid, music
schools, Ishaq al-Mawsili, court music, military music, cultural exchange
Introduction
The Abbasid period represents one of the most
significant stages of cultural and intellectual development in the history of
Islamic civilization. The Abbasids came to power in 750 CE and, following the
establishment of Baghdad in 762 CE, transformed the city into one of the most
important political, intellectual, and cultural centers of the Islamic world.
Within this environment, music received increasing support from the court and
cultural circles and gradually acquired a status that extended beyond mere entertainment.
The presence of musicians, poets, and artists from different regions of the
Islamic realm facilitated interaction among diverse traditions and contributed
to the emergence of new musical practices.
The patronage of certain caliphs, particularly
al-Mahdi, Harun al-Rashid, and al-Ma'mun, together with the provision of
rewards and stipends to musicians, contributed to the professionalization of
musical activities. The Abbasid court became an important center of musical
performance, where instruments such as the oud, harp, frame drum, and reed
flute were used in various settings. In addition to court music, musical
practices were associated with official ceremonies, literary gatherings, and
military activities. Musicians such as Ibrahim al-Mawsili and Ishaq al-Mawsili
played prominent roles in preserving, developing, and transmitting performance
and theoretical traditions. Accordingly, examining music during the Abbasid era
can illuminate important dimensions of the transformation of musical,
educational, and social structures and clarify the contribution of this period
to the formation of Islamic musical traditions.
The Flourishing and Development of Islamic Music in
the Abbasid Era
The Islamic Golden Age began in the mid-eighth
century with the rise of the Abbasid Caliphate. In 750 CE, the Abbasids assumed
power and moved the capital to Baghdad, which was established in 762 CE.
Baghdad became the intellectual center of the Islamic states and maintained
this status until the weakening of Abbasid power in the tenth century. The
Abbasids were influenced by Quranic teachings and Hadith. Disciplines such as
anthropology, ethnomusicology, and performance studies have long shown that music
was central to religion and culture (Haris et al., 2020, p. 206). During the
Abbasid era, the continuous movement of artists, scholars, religious leaders,
slaves, and others facilitated extensive cultural exchange, which created new
local languages for written and oral expression. This process led to the growth
and expansion of literature, art, and music in the Islamic world. The period
can be regarded as an era of cultural and artistic flourishing whose effects
persisted for centuries. The interaction and influence of diverse cultures
during this period laid the foundation for profound transformations in the
cultural and artistic identity of Islamic civilization. In the ninth and tenth
centuries, higher standards of performance and musicianship emerged, as
prominent musicians faced increasing demand to demonstrate their technical
skills. Courtly entertainments became highly lavish, and the imitation of such
events by the elite promoted widespread support and significant growth of music
in society (Nielson, 2021, p. 37). Music was considered part of cultural
grandeur, and its importance led to the establishment of specialized schools
for its study as a science. The first caliph to openly show interest in music
was al-Mahdi, but the most famous patron of music in this period was Harun
al-Rashid (786–809 CE). Harun al-Rashid’s name is closely associated with the
famous tales of One Thousand and One Nights, and his reign is recognized
as a golden age of art and music (Hatter, 2015, p. 2679).
In Harun’s palace, female slaves performed only
dances, singing, and playing instruments such as the drum, lyre, oud, flute,
qanun, and santur. Zaidan writes that in the court of al-Amin there were 100
female singers and musicians; in each session, ten women performed with their
instruments, played a specific melody, and then left, after which the next
group performed a different melody. This rotation continued until all one
hundred performed ten different melodies. Zaidan also adds that as the wealth
of the Abbasid caliphs increased, their lavish lifestyle intensified, and
musicians, doctors, and entertainers joined the court to satisfy the demands of
luxury and pleasure. Sources of wealth in the cities flourished, and urban
residents, under the protection of the caliphs and state officials, indulged in
leisure and entertainment, selling various goods, while receiving rewards,
robes, and gifts. Musicians, singers, and poets in the palaces of elites
entertained and delighted their audiences with excellent performances, music,
and poetry (Zaidan, 1372, pp. 336–337, 342–377).
The Abbasids in Baghdad supported musicians who
came to the city from across the Islamic territories, turning music into a tool
to showcase the grandeur of the caliphate. These patronages facilitated the
expansion of music and the blending of diverse traditions, bringing musical art
to a peak of creativity and flourishing during this period (Lucas, 2019, p.
35). During the caliphate of al-Ma'mun, the Bayt al-Hikmah project, as a center
for the translation and dissemination of various sciences, played a crucial
role in transmitting Greek knowledge to the Islamic world. In this context,
Muslims translated several musical treatises by prominent Greek authors such as
Aristotle, Ptolemy, and Nicomachus. Muslim scholars refined these texts, which
encompassed both theoretical and practical knowledge of music, and aligned them
with Islamic principles and values to present them in a form suitable for the
contemporary Islamic society.
Consequently, music held a prominent position in
the culture and arts of that era, particularly due to the efforts of figures
like Ishaq al-Mawsili (767–850 CE), whose activities led to unprecedented
growth and prosperity in musical art. Ishaq al-Mawsili, through the creation of
enduring works and the revival of Arab musical traditions, played a fundamental
role in consolidating and expanding this art in the Abbasid court, earning
recognition as one of the most influential musicians in history (Saoud, 2004,
p. 3). The Abbasid caliphs, by allocating substantial budgets to support
artists, created favorable conditions for the growth and flourishing of music.
This support included generous stipends, awarding valuable prizes, and even
granting land or property to distinguished musicians. In this way, musicians
not only gained widespread fame among both elites and the general public but
also accumulated considerable wealth and attained a special social status
(Arbor, 2018, p. 28).
Musicianship standards and the distinction between elite music and popular genres significantly developed in the eighth and ninth centuries with the establishment of music schools. These schools did not necessarily exist as physical buildings but often referred to educational groups associated with prominent teachers. Most musicians learned their art through apprenticeship under a master. In this system, musicians, whether free or enslaved, were recognized as members of a school or branch belonging to their teacher. Initially, music schools were primarily established to train female slave singers. Ibrahim al-Mawsili (742–804 CE), a prominent musician, father of Ishaq al-Mawsili, and close friend of the Abbasid caliph Harun al-Rashid, was among the first to establish a music school and selected female slaves for training (Hamoud Maidi, 2021, p176). Nielson, citing al-Isfahani, notes that Ibrahim al-Mawsili founded his school partly to standardize music education, while simultaneously gaining substantial financial profit from selling the women under training. Furthermore, the establishment of music schools played a key role in reducing social restrictions on men pursuing careers as musicians, allowing them to study music professionally and benefit from financial support (Nielson, 2021, pp. 43–44).
During the early period of the Abbasid Caliphate,
female singers typically performed behind a curtain, but in later periods, the
Abbasid caliphs brought them onto more public stages, exposing their
performances fully to the audience. In the ninth and tenth centuries, a complex
and multi-layered hierarchy emerged in the musical sphere, where musical skill,
social status, and political influence played a central role in determining
individuals’ positions. Part of this hierarchy was led by prominent female
singers. At the top of this social structure were groups such as the qiyan,
court companions (nadim), enslaved musician girls, selected free and noble
women, mukhannathun (eunuchs), and male musicians. Musical-poetic gatherings,
known as majlis (plural: majalis), were organized by rulers,
courtiers, and members of the wealthy classes and included poetry recitation,
music, wine drinking, and occasionally romantic activities. These gatherings
had a ceremonial structure but could also be spontaneous or pre-planned,
sometimes lasting for several days (Ibid, 2021, pp. 53–69, 170).
Islamic musicians, in addition to inventing new
musical instruments and developing novel styles and techniques, authored
valuable treatises on music. The caliphs made efforts to promote and refine
music by all available means. They ensured that vocalists were educated and
literate, capable of correctly reciting poetry. Caliphs often gathered
composers for debates and research, rewarding the best with prizes and
stipends, and granting slaves, concubines, and camels (Zaidan, 1372, p. 622).
During the Abbasid period, music also played an
important role on the battlefield. Instruments such as trumpets and large drums
were used to coordinate and motivate troops, as well as to transmit messages
and commands during combat. Military music reflected the advanced
organizational structure and discipline of the Abbasid army. The sound of
trumpets and drumbeats heightened the excitement of the battlefield and
prepared warriors for combat. This tradition formed an integral part of Abbasid
military culture and is depicted in both artworks and historical texts.
The miniature
image of Baghdad, dating to 1237 CE, is from the Hariri manuscript,
which is currently housed in the National Museum of France (Towers, 1997, p.
12).
The miniature referenced here belongs to the Maqamat
al-Hariri manuscript, created in Baghdad in 1237 CE. This manuscript is one
of the most famous illustrated versions of Maqamat al-Hariri, a work
written by the Arab author Qasim ibn Ali al-Hariri in the twelfth century,
containing stories in rhymed and eloquent prose. The manuscript includes
miniatures inspired by the artistic style prevalent during the Abbasid period
in Baghdad. At that time, Baghdad was one of the major scientific and cultural
centers of the Islamic world, and the art of miniature painting reached its
peak there. This particular miniature depicts the use of trumpets and large
drums in Abbasid-era Islamic battles and, alongside other features of the
manuscript, plays a key role in documenting the military culture and traditions
of the period. After the glorious era of Caliph al-Ma'mun, subsequent Abbasid
rulers weakened and became entangled in internal conflicts and lavish
lifestyles. From the ninth century onward, Abbasid authority declined, leading
to the emergence of several semi-independent states in Khorasan. As a result,
independent Muslim dynasties such as the Tahirids (821–873 CE), Saffarids
(867–903 CE), Samanids (875–1005 CE), Ghaznavids (977–1186 CE), Seljuks
(1037–1192 CE), Ghurids (1149–1212 CE), and Khwarazmians (1077–1231 CE) rose to
power across the broader region of Khorasan (Israt & Islam, 2013, p. 34).
Conclusion
The study of music during the Abbasid era demonstrates that this art extended
beyond mere entertainment or courtly activity and played a significant role in
shaping the cultural and social identity of the period. Material and moral
support from the caliphs, especially Harun al-Rashid and al-Ma'mun, enabled
prominent musicians to research, teach, and create new works, giving rise to
organized musical traditions and educational institutions. The Abbasid
experience shows that music could serve as a means of cultural exchange, the
promotion of knowledge, and even the consolidation of political authority, as
it was not only a form of entertainment in the court but also a symbol of
caliphal grandeur and a benchmark for standardizing artistic culture.
Moreover, the presence of female singers and qiyan
in courtly gatherings and their significant role in training and performance
reflect the flexibility of the social and artistic structure of this period.
Additionally, the integration of diverse musical traditions from across the
Islamic world and the reinterpretation of Greek musical texts indicate the
Abbasid society’s high capacity for cultural coexistence and innovation. The
history of Abbasid music demonstrates that its growth relied on three key elements:
political and economic support, an organized educational structure, and
extensive cultural interaction. Ultimately, music in the Abbasid era laid a
solid foundation for the development of Islamic music in subsequent centuries.
The caliphs’ patronage, the establishment of music schools, and the work of
prominent musicians ensured that theoretical and practical musical traditions
were standardized and consolidated. This period demonstrated that a combination
of structured education, artistic innovation, and caliphal support could foster
a sustainable musical culture. Many of the modes, styles, and performance
techniques developed in the late Abbasid period were used and further evolved
in later Islamic eras, and the musical achievements of the Abbasids remain a
model for Islamic musical art.
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