Music in the Epic and Mythological Narratives of Ancient Afghanistan

Music in the Epic and Mythological Narratives of Ancient Afghanistan

Author: Islamuddin Feroz, Former Professor, Department of Music, Faculty of Fine Arts, University of Kabul.

ORCID: 0009-0004-0024-1223

 

Abstract

Myths have long served as important vehicles for transmitting the cultural traditions, artistic expressions, and social values of human communities. In the ancient traditions associated with Afghanistan, Aryan myths preserve not only narratives of heroic and divine figures but also indications of the significant place of music in the lives of people of the time. Within these narratives, music appears to have extended beyond entertainment and leisure, functioning as a means of emotional expression, the transmission of religious and social teachings, and the strengthening of collective identity. From the Pishdadian period through the Kayanian era, instruments such as the tanbur, flute, and barbat are represented as means through which emotional, spiritual, and social experiences were expressed. Drawing on historical sources and mythological texts, including Zayn al-Akhbar, the Vendidad, and Ferdowsi’s Shahnameh, this article examines the role of music in festivals, rituals, royal gatherings, and everyday life in the ancient traditions of Afghanistan. It further explores how mythological narratives contributed to the representation and transmission of musical culture and highlights the broader cultural significance attributed to music in these traditions.

Keywords: Myth, Ancient Music, Afghanistan, Aryans, Pishdadians, Kayanians, Aspah Kings, Shahnameh

Introduction

Myth has traditionally functioned as more than a collection of legendary stories. It has served as a cultural and symbolic framework through which societies have preserved their understanding of identity, values, beliefs, customs, and relationships with the natural and supernatural worlds. Mythological narratives often contain reflections of social organization, moral principles, religious practices, and collective experiences. For this reason, they provide an important window into the intellectual and cultural world of earlier communities.

Music occupies a particularly significant place within such narratives. It is frequently associated not only with celebration and entertainment but also with the expression of emotions, the transmission of religious and social concepts, education, ritual practice, and the creation of collective solidarity. In mythological traditions, music may therefore be understood as both an artistic form and a cultural instrument through which communities expressed and preserved their shared experiences.

In the ancient traditions associated with the Aryans, music was represented in connection with emotional expression, communication between human beings and the supernatural world, and the transmission of social values and skills. Narratives concerning kings, heroes, festivals, and communal ceremonies indicate that musical performance was closely connected with important events and social practices. The sound of instruments and human voices could signify joy and beauty, while at the same time symbolizing order, authority, harmony, and collective participation.

Against this background, the present study examines representations of music in the mythological traditions associated with the Pishdadian and Kayanian periods and the Aspah kings. Particular attention is given to ritual and courtly music, musical instruments, singers, and performers as represented in historical and literary sources. The study seeks to clarify the relationship between mythology, music, and artistic culture in the ancient traditions of Afghanistan and to demonstrate how music is portrayed not merely as an art form but also as a cultural and social force.

Epic Narratives, Mythology, and Music in Ancient Ariana

Myth may be understood as a form of narrative that extends beyond straightforward historical record and conveys the collective experiences and cultural values of a society. Within such narratives, music can function as a medium for emotional expression as well as for communicating social and religious meanings. In the mythological traditions associated with ancient Afghanistan, music is represented not simply as an artistic activity but as an element of individual and collective identity.

In ancient periods, music was closely associated with mythological figures and frequently appeared in connection with important events, celebrations, and communal ceremonies. Such representations illustrate the perceived significance of music in the cultural and artistic life of different periods associated with the ancient Aryan traditions. Music possessed an aesthetic dimension, but it could also contribute to social order, the transmission of values, and the establishment of relationships between human beings and the natural world.

As reflected in historical and mythological accounts concerning the Pishdadian period, music represented more than artistic expression. It formed part of the spiritual and social experience of human communities. Sound and melody were portrayed as means of expressing emotions, communicating religious and social concepts, and organizing collective activities. Music therefore served not merely as entertainment but also as a means through which individuals could express human experience and establish connections with their communities. Within this context, musical instruments acquired symbolic significance and were associated with the ability to express intangible ideas and establish connections between human beings and supernatural forces.

Among the instruments associated with the Aryan cultural tradition, the tanbur occupies a distinctive position. According to the mythological accounts, this ancient instrument is presented as one of the earliest known musical instruments among the Aryans, and its origin is associated with concepts such as creation, communication, and human mastery over nature. In ancient narratives, the sound of the tanbur is therefore represented as more than pleasant musical sound; it carries meaning and signifies a relationship between humanity and the unseen world.

Gardizi, in Zayn al-Akhbar, relates an account concerning the reign of the Pishdadian king Tahmuras that provides a symbolic explanation for the origin of the tanbur. According to this narrative:

Tahmuras, after ascending the throne, found that the demons had gained power over the people. He fought against them and prevented them from harming humanity. As his struggle continued and the demons found themselves increasingly under pressure, they approached him and asked how long he intended to torment them. Tahmuras replied that they would be spared when dry wood and dry strings could speak, when a tree could produce royal clothing, when he could hold the wind in his hand, and when he could eat food that had neither been killed by an ox nor cooked by fire. The demons then made a tanbur and said, “Here are the wood and strings that speak.” They also brought silkworms, spun their silk around the silk tree, and presented it as the tree that produced royal clothing (Gardizi, 1363, p. 31).

This narrative, although presented in mythological form, reflects a profound conception of the role of musical instruments and music in the development of civilization. In this story, the tanbur is not merely the product of technical craftsmanship; it becomes a symbol of humanity’s movement from the silence of nature toward the creation of meaning and art. The narrative consequently associates music and ancient instruments with the relationship between power, thought, and collective experience. The persistence of similar ideas within later musical and ritual traditions suggests that music was regarded not merely as an individual form of expression but also as a medium connecting human beings with history, society, and the supernatural world.

Traditions also attribute an important role in the development of music to Jamshid, the legendary king associated with a golden age of human civilization. According to these narratives, Jamshid introduced people to music. On the first day of the year, he is said to have risen toward the heavens amid the joyful cries of the people and to have established the customs associated with the New Year. In this way, communal celebrations and ceremonies came to acquire an organized form. He is also said to have taught people essential skills, including poetry and singing, thereby demonstrating the capacity of the human voice, as the most complete natural instrument, to communicate emotional and spiritual experiences. Singing and poetry were thus not merely forms of entertainment but also means of moral education, social connection, and collective celebration.

Alongside the human voice, other musical instruments were also regarded as significant during this period. Among them was the flute, which, according to the sources, was made from a reed or staff and was capable of producing pleasing melodies. Its music was associated with maintaining an atmosphere of celebration and joy among the people and with creating an environment appropriate to New Year ceremonies. The combination of flute music and singing reflects the importance attributed to the balance between the natural power of the human voice and the expressive capacity of musical instruments.

This narrative further suggests that during the age associated with Jamshid, music had become an important component of social and ritual practices rather than simply a form of amusement. The teaching of singing and poetry, together with the making and playing of the flute, involved not only technical abilities but also educational and spiritual functions. Through music, people participated in celebration and strengthened their relationship with nature, time, and the community. In this sense, music was represented from an early period as a means of emotional expression, collective identity, and social organization.

The representation of Jamshid as a figure associated with the teaching of music and singing demonstrates that music in the traditions of the Aryans was understood not only as an aesthetic art but also as a spiritual, social, and ritual practice. Elements of this conception can be observed in later musical traditions as well (Naderi, 2009, p. 72).

Zoroastrian texts also contain references to the use of trumpets in the story of Jamshid. The Vendidad describes Jamshid using such instruments to guide not only human beings but also animals toward a place of safety during severe winters. This account suggests that organized sounds and musical signals had practical and social functions within ritual and mythological narratives and were not limited to decorative or recreational purposes. The trumpets, identified as Sufrai and Ashtarai, were reportedly made of gold, a detail that further indicates their special significance in collective ceremonies and activities (Lawergren, 2003, p. 94).

The sound of these trumpets functioned not only as a means of communication but also as a mechanism for maintaining social cohesion and establishing order. By using the trumpet to direct people toward a place of safety, Jamshid demonstrates the practical role attributed to organized sound in the ancient narrative tradition. Music could therefore simultaneously possess spiritual, educational, and practical dimensions. The importance assigned to these instruments in Zoroastrian texts points to an understanding of music as a means of maintaining social coordination and establishing communication between human beings and their surrounding world.

The use of golden trumpets may also be interpreted as an indication of the value and sacred significance associated with music in these myths. The instruments were not simply devices for producing sound; they were also associated with Jamshid’s authority, wisdom, and power. Their ability to influence the movement of people and animals symbolically emphasizes the perceived power of organized sound. In this way, music in the ancient Iranian tradition is represented through instruments and structured sounds as an important element of social order, ritual practice, and communication with supernatural forces (ibid., p. 94).

Music in the Kayanian Tradition

Music also occupied a distinctive position in the traditions associated with the Kayanians, appearing repeatedly in epic and mythological narratives. In Ferdowsi’s Shahnameh, the story of Kay Kavus provides an important example. According to the narrative, Kay Kavus, the Kayanian king, was one day consulting with his warriors and discussing various affairs of the kingdom. During the discussion, one of the court attendants came before the king and announced that a minstrel from Mazandaran wished to appear before him.

The minstrel was presented as an accomplished musician from Mazandaran who was highly skilled at playing the barbat. He requested permission to demonstrate his art before the king. Kay Kavus accepted the request and ordered that the minstrel be brought to the court. When the musician arrived, he was seated before the king and permitted to tune his barbat and perform a melody. He prepared the instrument and began singing in the style associated with Mazandaran.

Through his song, the minstrel described the extraordinary beauty of Mazandaran. The performance affected Kay Kavus so strongly that he became fascinated by the region. The song and its description of the land eventually contributed to the king’s decision to send his army toward Mazandaran with the intention of conquering it.

Another example appears in the story of Rostam and the King of Samangan. The king warmly welcomed Rostam and prepared an appropriate place for him in the palace. He then invited the city’s nobles and military leaders and joined Rostam in celebration. The king ordered that wine and festivities begin. Beautiful young women danced at the gathering, while musicians performed joyful melodies in order to dispel Rostam’s sadness and create an atmosphere of happiness (Ferdowsi, 1391, pp. 210–275).

These epic and mythological narratives demonstrate that music in the Kayanian tradition extended beyond entertainment and possessed social, ritual, and psychological functions. Musical instruments and melodies could influence behavior, establish connections between rulers and their communities, and strengthen collective participation. The presence of minstrels and musicians at royal courts suggests that music was regarded as a medium connecting power, beauty, and wisdom.

Music also played an important role in festivals and communal gatherings. It provided a means of expressing emotions and creating psychological comfort, while simultaneously contributing to the formation of social and cultural relationships. From this perspective, the narratives of the Shahnameh do more than preserve legendary or historical memories; they also reveal the cultural and social importance attributed to music in the ancient Iranian world.

Music, Festivals, and Courtly Culture among the Aspah Kings

Ferdowsi also refers to elaborate celebrations during the reigns of the Aspah kings. These festivities involved the decoration of cities and the invitation of minstrels and musicians to the royal court. Within such gatherings, music, together with wine, symbolized joy and celebration and formed an integral part of courtly ceremonial culture.

The Shahnameh describes these celebrations as occasions in which luxurious fabrics were used for decoration and fragrant substances such as musk and ambergris were employed to beautify and perfume the surroundings. The atmosphere was enhanced by the pleasant music performed by minstrels and by the presence of mounted warriors whose appearance displayed the king’s military power and grandeur.

King Goshtasp was also portrayed as being deeply pleased by the music. He joined the singing of the minstrels, held a cup of wine, and contributed to the happiness of the courtiers and the people. He further ordered all the commanders and leading figures of the army and kingdom to participate in the festivities. This detail illustrates the importance of such ceremonies in bringing together different social groups and members of the military establishment (Ferdowsi, 1391, p. 1025).

These courtly celebrations should therefore not be understood merely as occasions for entertainment. They also functioned as spaces for strengthening social bonds, displaying royal authority and prestige, and promoting cultural values. Music and minstrelsy, through the combination of sound, movement, and singing, created joy and celebration while also contributing to the preservation and transmission of cultural traditions.

Such ceremonies enabled the people, nobles, and military leaders to participate in a shared experience characterized by order, magnificence, and social harmony. The coordination between musicians, mounted warriors, and other participants provides an example of the role of music in creating collective unity and cohesion.

Accordingly, Ferdowsi’s description extends beyond a simple account of a royal celebration. It offers insight into the importance of music and communal ceremonies in maintaining relationships among the king, the military, and the wider population. In these narratives, celebration and artistic performance are closely connected with political authority, social organization, and cultural identity.

Myth as a Reflection of Cultural and Social History

Taken as a whole, the stories and mythological narratives discussed above should not be viewed merely as tales intended for entertainment. They have also played an important role in preserving and transmitting representations of the cultural world of ancient peoples. Through descriptions of kings, heroes, celebrations, rituals, and social activities, these narratives reveal layers of cultural, political, and social experience that might otherwise remain difficult to identify.

The stories of Jamshid, Kay Kavus, and the Aspah kings, although presented through legendary and mythological frameworks, contain representations of social organization, systems of authority, ritual practices, and relationships between human beings, nature, and supernatural forces. For modern researchers, such narratives can therefore provide useful material for understanding aspects of ancient culture and civilization.

In this sense, myths may be regarded as mirrors that reflect aspects of the past. They demonstrate that artistic practices, music, rituals, and celebrations existed in close relationship with political authority and everyday social life. The study of mythology is consequently valuable not only for understanding ancient literature and art but also for investigating representations of cultural and social history in the traditions associated with ancient Afghanistan.

Conclusion

An examination of the mythological and historical narratives associated with ancient Afghanistan demonstrates that music and artistic practices were represented as important components of social, cultural, and spiritual life. Although these texts are often expressed through legendary and mythological forms, they contain valuable representations of social organization, systems of governance, collective rituals, and relationships between human beings and the surrounding world.

Within these narratives, music was not restricted to recreation or entertainment. It functioned as a means of transmitting cultural messages, strengthening collective cohesion, and communicating moral and social values. Kings, heroes, minstrels, and musicians used songs, voices, and instruments within celebrations and ceremonies through which ideas of authority, grandeur, communal identity, and social values could be expressed.

One of the distinctive characteristics of these myths is their ability to combine elements of reality with symbolic representation. Even when particular details belong to the realm of legend, the structure and content of the narratives can reveal important information about the beliefs, values, and cultural priorities of the communities that preserved them. The presence of minstrels, musicians, and musical instruments at royal courts, for example, reflects the significance attributed to art within political and social relationships and suggests that music was represented as a shared language capable of connecting rulers and communities.

Myths also played an important role in preserving historical and cultural memory. At a time when written sources were limited, oral and mythological narratives provided mechanisms for transmitting knowledge, skills, customs, traditions, and even geographical and political information from one generation to another. Music, together with epic and ritual storytelling, could therefore function as a kind of living cultural record, allowing human experiences and values to survive in artistic and memorable forms.

From this perspective, the study of mythology is more than a literary exercise. It can provide a key to understanding aspects of the social, political, and cultural structures of ancient Ariana. These narratives portray art and music—from early forms of singing and instrumental performance to courtly celebrations and ritual ceremonies—as forces capable of bringing people together and establishing social order. Through them, researchers can explore representations of relationships between human beings, nature, society, and political authority.

Ultimately, the musical and mythological traditions associated with the ancient Aryans can be viewed as a bridge between artistic expression and human life. They convey not only aesthetic beauty and artistic emotion but also the cultural, social, and educational significance attributed to music and ritual practices in the ancient traditions of Afghanistan and neighboring regions. Studying these texts provides an opportunity to develop a deeper understanding of ancient civilization and the place of music and artistic practice in shaping human experience, strengthening social cohesion, and preserving cultural values. In this sense, music and myth have historically represented forces extending far beyond sound and storytelling.

References

Gardizi, Abu Sa'id Abd al-Hayy. (1363 [1984]). Zayn al-Akhbar: The History of Gardizi. Edited by Abd al-Hayy Habibi. Tehran: Donyay-e Ketab Publications.

Ferdowsi, Abol-Qasem. (1391 [2012]). Shahnameh. Edited and revised by Fereydoun Joneydi.

Lawergren, B. (2003). “Oxus Trumpets, ca. 2200–1800 BCE: Material Overview, Usage, Societal Role, and Catalog.” Iranica Antiqua, 38, 41–118.

Naderi, Anna Baylinska. (2009). “The Influence of Tradition on the Musical Cultures of Central Asia.” Proceedings of the Ninth Conference of the European Society for Central Asian Studies, pp. 72–85.